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Here

Definition: Here

Here

Adjective

1. Being here now; "is everyone here?"; "present company excepted".

Adverb

1. In or at this place; where the speaker or writer is; "I work here"; "turn here"; "radio waves received here on Earth".

2. In this circumstance or respect or on this point or detail; "what do we have here?"; "here I must disagree".

3. To this place (especially toward the speaker); "come here, please".

4. At this time; now; "we'll adjourn here for lunch and discuss the remaining issues this afternoon".

Noun

1. The present location; this place; "where do we go from here?".

2. Queen of the Olympian gods in ancient Greek mythology; sister and wife of Zeus remembered for her jealously of the many mortal women Zeus fell in love with; identified with Roman Juno.

Source: WordNet 1.7.1 Copyright © 2001 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
 

Date "here" was first used in popular English literature: sometime before 1010. (references)

Etymology: Here \Here\, adverb [Old English her, Anglo-Saxon akin to Old Saxon, Dutch hier, Old High German hiar, German hier, Icelandic & Gothic, Danish her, Swedish h["a]r; from root of English he. See He.]. (references)

 

Specialty Definition: 12 steps

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The 12 steps for recovery were first created to aid those who were recovering from alcoholism. Since their original publication, other 12-step programs have adapted them to a variety of addictions.

  1. We admitted we were powerless over alcohol -- that our lives had become unmanageable.
  2. Came to believe that a Power greater than ourselves could restore us to sanity.
  3. Made a decision to turn our will and our lives over to the care of God as we understood Him.
  4. Made a searching and fearless moral inventory of ourselves.
  5. Admitted to God, to ourselves and to another human being the exact nature of our wrongs.
  6. Were entirely ready to have God remove all these defects of character.
  7. Humbly asked Him to remove our shortcomings.
  8. Made a list of all persons we had harmed, and became willing to make amends to them all.
  9. Made direct amends to such people wherever possible, except when to do so would injure them or others.
  10. Continued to take personal inventory and when we were wrong promptly admitted it.
  11. Sought through prayer and meditation to improve our conscious contact with God, as we understood Him, praying only for knowledge of His will for us and the power to carry that out.
  12. Having had a spiritual awakening as the result of these steps, we tried to carry this message to alcoholics, and to practice these principles in all our affairs.

Source: http://www.alcoholics-anonymous.org/default/en_about_aa_sub.cfm?subpageid=76&pageid=12

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "12 steps."

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400-Series Highway

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

400-Series Highways are a network of controlled-access freeways throughout the Province of Ontario, Canada. They function similar to the Interstate Highway network in the United States or the Autoroute system in the province of Quebec. Modern 400-series highways have very high design standards, high speed limits (100 KM/h with plans to raise it as high as 130 KM/h) and various collision avoidance systems. The standard interchange used on 400-Series Highways, the Parclo A4, was designed by Ontario's Ministry of Transportation to replace the cloverleaf interchange and has since become the standard interchange used on new freeways throughout North America.





'''Aerial view of Highway 401 looking east from the Don Valley Parkway
in Toronto

400-Series History

400-Series Highways receive numbers one of two ways. The first and original method was sequential numbering starting at 400 and working up to 409. The first three 400-series Highways were 400, 401 and 402 - originally known as the Barrie-Toronto Highway, Highway 2A and the Bluewater Bridge Approach. All three highways received their numbers in 1952. Since then additional highways have been constructed using sequential numbering from 403 to 409. Although there were plans for a Highway 408 it was not constructed. It is widely believed that the new Mid-Peninsula Highway bypass of the Queen Elizabeth Way will receive the designation 408.

The more common method of 400-series numbering after 1970 is assigning a 400 designation to an already-existing highway. For example, Toronto’s Highway 427 was the original routing of Highway 27 prior to being upgraded to a freeway. Highway 416 and 417 were the original routings of Highway 16 and 17 in the Ottawa area. Sometimes the highway isn’t necessarily an upgrade of the existing route. Highway 410 and 420 were both freeway bypasses of Highway 10 and Highway 20.

Although the Queen Elizabeth Way has no posted route number it is still part of the 400-Series highway network. The QEW has the secret designation of Highway 451.

List of 400-Series Highways

Today there are 15 different 400-Series Highways (including the QEW) creating a transportation backbone across the southern portion of the province. Plans are currently underway to extend the existing network into Northern Ontario as well as add new routes into the system.

Highway 400

As of October 2003, Highway 400 runs from Toronto to Parry Sound. There is currently an 8 kilometre gap at the Musquash River bridge where the highway is only two lanes, rather than four; however, as the four-lane construction is expected to be completed within a couple of years, the Highway 400 designation has already been extended through this segment. There is also an approximately 20 km stretch, from Horseshoe Lake to the terminus at Parry Sound, where the highway bears the dual designation 400/69. At the Parry Sound terminus of Highway 400, the four lanes simply merge into two and continue northward as Highway 69. Continued construction along the Highway 69 corridor will eventually extend Highway 400 to Sudbury in Northern Ontario. Although this may be subject to change, the Ontario Ministry of Transportation currently plans to have this construction completed by 2013.

Highway 400 is Toronto's main freeway link into Muskoka, York Region and Barrie.

Highway 401

Highway 401 runs from Windsor to the Quebec border. Highway 401 is the backbone of the 400-Series network running across the entire length of Southern and Eastern Ontario.

Highway 402

Highway 402 starts at the Blue Water Bridge in Point Edward (a small village located inside Sarnia) and runs 102km to end at Highway 401 in London. The 402 connects Interstates 69 and 94 in Michigan with the 401 in Ontario.

Highway 403

Highway 403 forms a loop that runs from the Highway 401 in Woodstock back to the junction of Highway 401 and Highway 410 in Mississauga. It passes through Brantford, Hamilton and the Southwestern Suburbs of Toronto. Land that was originally planned to be used for the 403 through Burlington and Oakville was sold to the owners of Highway 407 in the mid-1990s, making a 23km gap between the two sections permanent. In 2002 the Ministry of Transportion co-signed the section of QEW together with the 403.

Highway 404

Highway 404 runs from north from the junction of Highway 401 and the Don Valley Parkway in Toronto to currently end in Newmarket, with eventual plans to extend it to the northern side of Lake Simcoe. Highway 404 is the second north-south freeway in York Region and connects the Northeastern Suburbs with Toronto.

Highway 405

Highway 405 serves as a connector from the Queen Elizabeth Way to the Queenston-Lewiston Bridge in Niagara-on-the-Lake. Though a short spur route, it is still considered a major highway connecting the main trunk highway to Toronto (the QEW) with Interstate 190 outside of Niagara Falls, New York.

Highway 406

Highway 406 serves as a north-south route from the Queen Elizabeth Way through downtown St. Catharines and into central Niagara. It is the last remaining 400-Series highway under Ministry of Transportation jurisdiction with two-lane non-freeway sections. These sections, located between Fonthill and Welland, are planned to be upgraded to full four-lane freeway starting in the Summer of 2004. Plans to extend the route further south to Highway 3 in Port Colborne have been on the books for years, though with the immanent construction of the Mid-Peninsula Highway any future extensions of Highway 406 are in doubt.

Highway 407

Highway 407 forms of Northern Bypass of Highway 401 and the Queen Elizabeth Way through the Greater Toronto Area. It is Ontario’s only toll highway and owned by a private corporation. Highway 407 was also the first highway to use electronic toll collection exclusively for its entire length.

Highway 409

Highway 409 is a short connector route from the 401 to Pearson International Airport. A short section of Highway 409 between Airport Road and Highway 427 in Mississauga was sold to the Greater Toronto Airport Authority in 1999 and is now under their jurisdiction.

Highway 410

Highway 410 runs from the junction of Highway 401 and Highway 403 in Mississauga through Northern Mississauga and Brampton, with eventual plans to extend it as far north as Orangeville or Owen Sound. Construction of a short extension from Highway 7 to Highway 10 is currently underway.

Highway 416

Highway 416 runs from Highway 401 near Johnstown to Highway 417 in Ottawa along the former routing of Highway 16. On the 54th anniversary of D-Day, June 6th, 2003, Highway 416 was officially dedicated as the Veterans Memorial Highway. It is the newest 400-Series highway to be built and owned by the Ministry of Transportation and is the main link between Toronto (via Highway 401) and the National Capital Region.

Highway 417

Highway 417 is the main freeway through the National Capital Region and Eastern Ontario along the Quebec border. Construction of a 27 km extension to Arnprior is currently underway and expected to be completed soon. Eventually the Ministry of Transportation hopes to extend the 417 as far west as North Bay and possibly even as far as Sault Ste. Marie -- however, there is no definite timeline set for this construction. Unlike all other east-west highways in Ontario, the 417 begins its mileage logs at the eastern terminus rather than the west.

Highway 420

This short freeway connects the Queen Elizabeth Way to the Rainbow Bridge in Niagara Falls. The highway was originally a part of the Queen Elizabeth Way itself, but it was renumbered as Highway 420 in 1972, after extensive reconstruction of the route. For nearly 800 meters east of Stanley Ave, Highway 420 is just a regular four-lane city street known as Roberts Street. Though this section of highway was once considered part of the 420, it was transfered to the City of Niagara Falls in 2000. Whether or not Roberts Street is still actually Highway 420 is questionable. The Ministry of Transportation hopes to extend the 420 west past Montrose Road to meet up with Highway 58 and the Thorold Tunnel.

Highway 427

Highway 427 came into existance by designating the already-freeway portions of Highway 27 and the Airport Expressway as a 400-series highway. It serves the heavy-travelled area between the Queen Elizabeth Way and Gardiner Expressway in the south and Highway 407 in the north. Highway 427 has heavy traffic volumes and is no less then 12 lanes between the Queen Elizabeth Way/Gardiner Expressway and Highway 401. The Ministry of Transportation plans on extending Highway 427 to at least Highway 89 and possibly as far as the Barrie area.

Queen Elizabeth Way (Highway 451)

The Queen Elizabeth Way is one of North America's oldest long-distance superhighways. Due to several directional changes along the route the highway uses city names rather than cardinal directions to direct motorists.

Former 400-Series Highways

Due to government restructuring in 1997 and 1998 various sections of provincial highway were transferred over to local jurisdictions. While most of the highways transferred were local in nature, several large routes including freeways were transferred to local governments.

Highway 400A

Originally Highway 400 until the opening of the Coldwater Extension in 1960, Highway 400A, though never signed, was a short spur connecting Highway 400 to the Highway 11 expressway northeast of Barrie. When Highway 11 south of Highway 400 was transferred to local control in 1997 the designation Highway 11 was officially applied to Highway 400A, eliminating it in its entirety. Highway 400A was formerly the shortest 400-Series Highway, had no junctions located between its termini, and was the only 400-Series Highway to be a suffixed route number.

Queen Elizabeth Way east of Highway 427

This short section of Queen Elizabeth Way was transffered to the City of Toronto in 1997 as a cost savings measure by the Provincial Government. It has since been re-designated as a western extension of the Gardiner Expressway

Future Additions to the System

There are several plans on the books to add new routes to the 400-series highway system to serve the growing population of motorists throughout Ontario. Many of these new routes are expected to be toll roads owned and operated in a similar fashion to Highway 407.

Mid-Peninsula Highway

The Mid-Peninsula Highway will serve as southern bypass of the Queen Elizabeth Way through the environmental sensitive Niagara Peninsula. Current estimates peg the QEW requiring five lanes of traffic per direction by 2012. Widening the highway to ten lanes through Ontario's Wine Country and Tender Fruitlands was not considered an acceptable option. Instead, the Mid-Peninsula Highway was devised as a bypass of the QEW for traffic heading directly to Toronto and beyond across the Southern and Central portions of the Niagara Peninsula. The Mid-Peninsula Highway will more then likely be a privately-owned toll (similar to Highway 407 road with construction expected to begin in 2004-2005.

Bradford Bypass

The Bradford Bypass will serve as a connector between Highways 400 and 404 on the extreme northern edge of the Greater Toronto Area. Construction is expected to begin by the end of this decade.

401/407 East Leg Connector 1

401/407 East Leg Connector 1 will serve as a connector between Highway 401 and Highway 407 in the fast-growing western end of Durham Region.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "400-Series Highway."

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Abbeville (disambiguation)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Abbeville is the name of several places in the world:

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Abbeville (disambiguation)."

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Alga

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The algae (sing. alga) comprise several different groups of living things, most of which are plants, or have similarities to plants. However, some of them are not actually true members of the kingdom Plantae. All algae lack true leaves, roots, flowers, and other structures specific to higher plants. Traditionally they are distinguished from bacteria and protozoa mainly in that they are autotrophic, obtaining their energy through photosynthesis. They are no longer considered a natural group, but the term is still used for convenience. The botanical study of algae is called phycology.

Traditionally the cyanobacteria have been included here, referred to as the blue-green algae, though recent literature often specifically excludes them. Cyanobacteria are one of the first groups to appear in the fossil record, dating back to about 3800 million years ago, and probably played a large role in creating the Earth's oxygen atmosphere. They have a prokaryotic cell structure, and conduct photosynthesis directly in the cytoplasm.

All other algae are eukaryotes, and conduct photosynthesis within membrane-bound chloroplasts. These chloroplasts contain DNA and are very similar in structure to the cyanobacteria, and presumably represent reduced cyanobacterial endosymbionts. The exact nature of the chloroplasts is different among the different lines of algae, reflecting different endosymbiotic events. There are three groups which have primary chloroplasts:

In these the chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes, of which the outer comes from the host and the inner from the chloroplast. The chloroplasts of red algae have a more or less typical cyanobacterial pigmentation, while the plants have chloroplasts with chlorophyll b, which is found in some cyanobacteria but not most. It is still not entirely clear whether these groups acquired chloroplasts independently, or diverged from a single ancestral form.

Two other groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophyll b, the euglenids and chlorarachniophytes. These are surrounded by three and four membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from an ingested green alga. Those of the chlorarchniophytes contain a small nucleomorph, which is the remnant of the alga's nucleus. It has been suggested that the euglenid chloroplasts only have three membranes because they were acquired through myzocytosis rather than phagocytosis.

The remaining algae all have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and c. The latter of these is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities suggest they are derived from red algae. These groups include:

In the first three of these groups the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads. It has been suggested that these groups, sometimes referred to as the Chromista, also share a common origin but this is far from certain. The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but there is considerable diversity in chloroplasts among the group, some members presumably having acquired theirs from other sources. The Apicomplexa, a group of closely related parasites, also have plastids though not actual chloroplasts, which may have a common origin with those of the dinoflagellates.

Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and non-motile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the life cycle of a species, are:

In three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached, leading to organisms with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae, some of which may reached 70 m in length, the red algae, and the green algae. The last have developed even more complex forms, giving rise to the land plants. The exact point where these begin, and the algae stop, is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with productive cell layers, which are not found in the other lines.

Algae are an extremely important part of water ecology. Larger algae, called seaweeds, grow in large underwater "forests" that provide distinctive habitats. Microscopic forms, called phytoplankton, provide most of the energy for marine ecosystems. Sometimes these are present in exceptionally large quantities, called algal blooms, which are typically visible as a weaker or stronger discoloration of the water. A few algae are eaten, or used to make various products. A great deal more could be said here...

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Alga."

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Autoroute

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Autoroute is a French word meaning, literally, a motor road, and corresponding to the words "motorway", "freeway" or "superhighway" in English. It is the name used in the francophone world for highways constructed exclusively for motor traffic.

France

The Autoroute system in France consists largely of toll roads. It is a network of 7,000 km worth of highways. Tolls are either based on a flat-rate or on the distance driven. France has the highest set speed for limited access highways (130 km/h) in Western Europe or North America.

Unlike the Quebecois Autoroute or the Interstate Highway System, there is no real numbering system, but there is a clustering of Autoroute numbers based on region. A-1, A-3, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-10, A-13, A-14, A-15, A-16 radiate from Paris with A-2 and A-11 branching from A-1 and A-10, respectively. The 20s are found in Northern France. The 30s are found in Eastern France. The 40s are found near the Alps. The 50s are near the French Riviera. The 60s are found in Southern France. The 70s are found in the centre of the country. The 80s are found west of Paris.

Quebec

The Autoroute system in the province of Quebec, Canada, is a network of freeways which operate under the same principle of controlled-access as the Interstate freeway system in the United States or the 400-Series Highways in neighbouring Ontario. The Autoroutes are the backbone of Quebec's highway system, which spans more than 20,000 km of roads. The speed limit on Quebec's Autoroutes is 100 km/h in rural areas and 70 km/h in urban areas.

Autoroutes are identified by blue and red shields, with the red header image representing a highway overpass. Quebec's Autoroutes are numbered from 1-99 in the case of principal routes, and from 400-999 in the case of collector routes or deviation routes designed such that truck traffic can by-pass urban areas. In the case of deviation routes, the hundreds prefix is even-numbered (e.g., 400, 600), whereas collector routes have odd-numbered prefixes (e.g., 500, 700, 900). For example, A-40 is an Autoroute, the A-640 is a deviation route, and the A-740 is a collector route linking the A-40 to other Autoroutes.

Odd-numbered Autoroutes (e.g., A-15) run north-south, while the even-numbered ones (e.g., A-20, A-40) run east-west. In addition, each Autoroute has a unique name in addition to its numerical designation and it is commonplace for Autoroutes to be identified using either method (e.g., the Décarie, the 15).


Examples of Autoroute marker shields.


A-15 Northbound, near Brossard

History of Quebec's Autoroutes

Quebec's first Autoroute was the Laurentian Autoroute (Autoroute des Laurentides), which opened in 1959 as a toll road. This initative to bring freeways into Quebec was started by Maurice Duplessis, whose government saw the construction of the Laurentian Autoroute (A-15) from Montréal to Saint-Jérôme and the first section of the Boulevard Métropolitain (A-40), which opened in 1960.

It was the Quebec Liberal government of the 1960s that saw the construction of further Autoroutes, especially in light of the fact that many visitors would be flocking to Montréal by car for Expo 67. The Décarie (A-15) and the Lafontaine Tunnel were constructed for that very reason. The Eastern Townships Autoroute (Autoroute des Cantons-de-l'Est) opened in 1964, while the A-55 between Magog and Rock Island opened in 1967. A-40 was extended out to Berthierville, and later to Trois-Rivières in the 1970s.

The 1970s also saw the completion of the Pierre-Laporte Bridge in Québec City, connecting the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River to the north. In addition to this, the A-73 was extended to Beauce, the A-20 was extended to Rivière-du-Loup, and the Chomedey Autoroute (A-13) and the A-440 were constructed in Laval. During the 1970s, the Parti Québécois came to power, whose platform mandated an expansion of public transportation over the construction of more Autoroutes. Existing Autoroutes were extended (e.g., the A-40 was extended from Trois-Rivières to Quebec City) but no new Autoroutes were built.

Nearly all of Quebec's Autoroutes were toll roads until the mid-1980s, when the toll barriers were removed and the province stopped collecting tolls from vehicles using the Autoroutes.

List of Autoroutes

Autoroute 5

Autoroute 10

Autoroute 13

Autoroute 15

Autoroute 19

Autoroute 20

Autoroute 25

Autoroute 30

Autoroute 31

Autoroute 35

Autoroute 40

Autoroute 50

Autoroute 55

Autoroute 70

Autoroute 73

Autoroute 410

Autoroute 440

Autoroute 520

Autoroute 540

Autoroute 573

Autoroute 640

Autoroute 720

Autoroute 740

Autoroute 955

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Autoroute."

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Binaural recording

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Binaural is a method of recording audio which uses a special microphone arrangement. The term has often been confused as a synonym for the word "stereo", and this is partially due to a large amount of misuse in the mid 1950s by the recording industry, as a marketing buzzword. In truth, binaural recordings are actually the best way to reproduce stereo with headphones. Typical stereo recordings are mixed for loud speaker arrangements, and do not factor in natural crossfeed or sonic shaping of the head and ear, since these things happen naturally as you listen.

Recording technique

With the simplest recording method, the only requirement is to place two microphones facing away from each other, and roughly seven inches apart. The distance and placement roughly approximates the position of an average human's ear canals.

More elaborate techniques exist in pre-packaged forms. A typical binaural recording unit has two high fidelity microphones mounted in a dummy head, inset in ear shaped molds to fully capture all of the audio frequency adjustments (known as Head Related Transfer Functions in the psychoacoustic research community) that happen naturally as sound wraps around the human head and is "shaped" by the form of the outer and inner ear. The Neumann KU-81, and KU-100 are the most commonly used binaural packages. The KEMAR system is another alternative. The more expensive and accurate Aachen Head Acoustics unit does automatic equalization and processing to create a more enveloping experience. A simplified version of this, called a Jecklin Disk, uses a 30cm acoustically absorptive disk between the mics.

In the past, a number of microphone sets were available that offered a customized "in-ear" microphone system, which could be linked to a portable DAT or MiniDisc recorder, bringing the ability to not only create binaural recordings to the masses, but to create mobile recordings as well. Unfortunately, these have been discontinued and are only available in the used electronics market.

Playback

Once recorded, the binaural effect can only be reproduced using a head set. It does not work with mono playback; nor does it work while using loudspeaker units, as the acoustics of this arrangement distort the channel separation via natural crossfeed (unless the arrangement is carefully designed, and using expensive crossfeed cancellation equipment.)

The result is a listening experience that spatially transcends normally recorded stereo, since it accurately reproduces the effect of hearing a sound in person, given the 360° nature of how our ears pick up nuance in the sound waves. Binaural records can very convincingly reproduce location of sound behind, ahead, above, or wherever else the sound actually came from during recording.

Any set of headphones that provide good right and left channel isolation are sufficient to hear the immersive effects of the recording, and anyone who has even a cheap set of headphones can enjoy the recordings. As with any playback, higher quality headphones will do a better job of creating a the illusion. Several high-end head set manufacturers have created some units specifically for the playback of binaural. Etymotic Research's ER-4B canal phone actually sits inside the ear, much like a hearing aid. The B model is tuned and equalized to enhance binaural playback. In addition, a number of headphone amplifier companies have created hardware that takes advantage of these special recordings.

History

The history of binaural recording goes back to 1881. The first binaural unit was an array of carbon telephone microphones installed along the front edge of the Paris Opera. The signal was sent to subscribers through the telephone system, and required that they wear a special head set, which had a tiny speaker for each ear.

The novelty wore off, and there wasn't significant interest in the technology until around forty years later when a Connecticut radio station began to broadcast binaural shows. Stereo radio had not yet been implemented, so the station actually broadcasted the left channel on one frequency and the right channel on a second. Listeners would then have to own two radios, and plug the right and left ear pieces of their head sets into each radio. Naturally, the expense of owning two radios was, at the time, too much for a broad audience, and again binaural faded into obscurity.

Binaural managed to remain in the background for many reasons. One was the expensive, specialized equipment required to do quality recordings. Another was the fact that it requires headphones to listen to correctly, something that most of the world considers a convenience, and would feel restrained if they couldn't listen to it on their home stereo systems, or in automobiles. Lastly, the types of things that can be recorded do not have a typically high market value. Recordings that are done in studios would have little to benefit from using a binaural set up, beyond natural crossfeed, as the spacial quality of the studio would not be very dynamic and interesting. Recordings that are of interest are live orchestral performances, and ambient "environmental" recordings of city sounds, nature, and other such subject matters.

The modern era has seen a resurgence of interest in binaural, specifically within the audiophile community, partially due to the widespread availability of headphones, and cheaper methods of recording. A small grass roots movement of people building their own recording sets and swapping them on the Internet has joined the relatively small collection of CDs that one can find available for purchase.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Binaural recording."

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British coin Florin

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The nineteenth and twentieth century Florin or Two Shillings coin should not be confused with the medieval gold Florin, which was worth six shillings.

In 1847 a motion was introduced in Parliament calling for the introduction of a decimal currency and the striking of coins of one-tenth and one-hundredth of a Pound. The motion was subsequently withdrawn on the understanding that a one-tenth Pound coin would be produced to test the waters of public opinion. There was considerable discussion of what the coin should be called, with Centum, Decade, and Dime being among the suggestions, before florin was eventually settled upon, partly because of its connection with old English coinage, and partly because other European countries also had coins of approximately the same size and weight called florins.

The first florins were struck in 1849 as silver coins weighing 11.3 grams and having a diameter of 28 millimetres. These first coins would have come as rather a shock to the public, as for the first time in nearly 200 years a British coin featured a portrait of the monarch wearing a crown. Even more of a shock, including, allegedly, to Queen Victoria herself, was the omission of D G -- Dei Gratia, by the grace of God -- from the coin's inscription, which resulted in it being popularly known as the Godless Florin. The inscription around the obverse read VICTORIA REGINA 1849. The reverse featured four crowned cruciform shields with a rose in the centre, with the shields separated by a rose, thistle, rose, and a shamrock; the inscription on the reverse was ONE FLORIN ONE TENTH OF A POUND. The Godless Florin may have also been minted in 1850 and 1851 with the 1849 date.

In 1851, the florin was redesigned in a most unusual way. The diameter was increased to 30 millimetres, and all the lettering on the coin was in Gothic script, resulting in it being known as the Gothic Florin. The date was rendered in Roman numerals. The inscription on the obverse read (e.g.) victoria d g britt reg f d mdcccli, while the reverse read one florin one tenth of a pound. The Gothic Florin was produced each year until 1887 (mdccclxxxvii).

In 1887, to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee, a new older "Jubilee Head" of the queen was used and the various flora were removed from the reverse and replaced by sceptres between the shields and a Garter Star in the centre. The diameter was reduced to 29.5 millimetres. All the inscriptions were in Latin letters and Arabic numbers. The inscription on the obverse read (e.g.) VICTORIA DEI GRATIA, while the reverse read FID DEF BRITT REG date, with no indication of the value. The Jubilee Head issue was released each year between 1887 and 1892.

In 1893, a new "Old Head" showing the veiled head of the queen was introduced, inscribed VICTORIA DEI GRA BRITT REGINA FID DEF IND IMP, together with a completely new reverse showing three shields separated by a rose, shamrock, and thistle surmounted by the Garter crown and inscribed ONE FLORIN TWO SHILLINGS. The diameter was reduced again, to 28.5 millimetres. This issue was released each year between 1893 and 1901.

The florin of King Edward VII was minted each year of his reign, 1902-1910. It remained at 11.3 grams weight and 29.5 millimetres diameter. The obverse shows the right-facing head of the king, inscribed EDWARDVS VII DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX FD IND IMP, while the reverse features an unique design showing Britannia standing on a shield with a spear, and inscribed ONE FLORIN TWO SHILLINGS date.

Florins bearing his left-facing effigy were minted in each year of the reign of King George V (1910-1936) except 1910 and 1934. Whilst the weight and diameter of the coin were unchanged, the metal composition was changed in 1920 from 0.925 silver to 50% silver, 40% copper, 10% nickel, then again in 1922 to 50% silver, 50% copper, and again in 1927 to 50% silver, 40% copper, 5% nickel, 5% zinc. The design of the reverse was similar to Queen Victoria's Jubilee florin. Until 1926 the inscriptions on the obverse were GEORGIVS V D G BRITT OMN REX F D IND IMP and on the reverse were ONE FLORIN date, while from 1927 the obverse inscriptions were GEORGIVS V DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX and the reverse ones were FID DEF IND IMP date ONE FLORIN.

After the end of George V's reign, the word "florin" no longer appears on British coins. A pattern florin exists for King Edward VIII, which would have been due to receive approval around the time that the king abdicated in 1936 -- the obverse shows the left-facing effigy of the king inscribed EDWARDVS VIII D G BR OMN REX, while the reverse shows a crowned rose flanked by a thistle and shamrock, with E below the thistle and R below the shamrock, and the inscription FID DEF IND IMP TWO SHILLINGS 1937.

King George VI's florins, produced each year between 1937 and 1951, look very like the one planned for his brother Edward VIII. The obverse shows the left-facing effigy of the king inscribed GEORGIVS VI D G BR OMN REX, while the reverse shows a crowned rose flanked by a thistle and shamrock, with G below the thistle and R below the shamrock, and the inscription FID DEF IND IMP TWO SHILLINGS date until 1948, and without the IND IMP from 1949. The metal content was changed, as for all silver coins, from 1947 to 75% copper, 25% nickel. This removal of all the silver meant that most of the earlier coins which contained silver were removed from circulation fairly quickly (see Gresham's law), although the writer of this article does recall receiving a coin inscribed "FLORIN" in the 1960s.

Florins were produced for Queen Elizabeth II each year between 1953 and 1967, with proof coins again produced in 1970. The obverse shows the Mary Gillick head of Queen Elizabeth, inscribed ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA BRITT OMN REGINA (1953 only) or ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA (all other years), while the reverse shows concentric roses in the centre surrounded by thistles, shamrocks, and leeks, with the inscription FID DEF TWO SHILLINGS date. In accordance with the plan for decimalisation of the currency (120 years after this denomination was first introduced in the first plan to introduce a decimal currency), from 1968 the decimal Ten Pence coin was introduced of the same size, weight, and metal composition as the florin. Accordingly the florin (usually dated 1947 or later) remained in circulation until the size of the decimal ten pence was itself reduced in 1992, and the coins were finally demonetised in 1993. For other denominations, please see British coinage.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "British coin Florin."

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British coin Half Penny

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

This article discusses the British decimal half penny coin, issued between 1971 and 1984, only. For the pre-decimal halfpenny, issued between 1272 and 1969, please see here.

The British decimal Half Penny (1/2p) coin was issued on 15 February 1971, the day the British currency was decimalised. In practice it had been available from banks in bags for some weeks previously.

The coin was minted in bronze. The coin weighed 1.78 grams and had a diameter of 17.14 millimetres. It was the smallest coin used in the decimal currency coinage by both size and value, and was nicknamed the "tiddler" on account of its size. By the early 1980s its value was minimal and its main utility was as a useful screwdriver of small screws. The 1984 half penny was only issued in proof sets by the Royal Mint, and the coin was demonetised and withdrawn from circulation in December 1984.

The reverse of the coin, designed by Christopher Ironside, was simply a crown, with the numeral "1/2" below the crown, and either NEW PENNY (1971-1981) or HALF PENNY (1982-1984) above the crown.

During the existence of the coin, only one obverse was used -- the head of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin, with the inscription ELIZABETH II D.G.REG.F.D. date.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "British coin Half Penny."

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British coin Two Pounds

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

This article discusses the British Two Pounds coins, both the commemorative issues issued between 1986 and 1996, and the regular bimetallic circulation coin first issued in 1998, dated 1997, only. For earlier Two Pounds coins issued in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, please see here.

The commemorative Two Pounds (£2) coin was minted from the same composition as the £1 coin, i.e. a nickel-brass alloy of approximately 70% copper, 24.5% nickel, and 5.5% zinc. The coin weighs 15.98 grams and has a diameter of 28.40 millimetres.

The only obverse used by the commemorative £2 coin is the head of Queen Elizabeth II by Raphael Maklouf, with the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F D TWO POUNDS.

There were seven issues of this coin, with the following reverses and inscriptions:

1. Thistle on St Andrews' Cross, 1986 above. Edge inscription: XIII COMMONWEALTH GAMES SCOTLAND 1986

2. Intertwined W and M with mace, English crown above, 1689 over 1989 below, TERCENTENARY OF THE BILL OF RIGHTS above. No edge inscription.

3. Intertwined W and M with mace, Scottish crown above, 1689 over 1989 below, TERCENTENARY OF THE CLAIM OF RIGHT above. No edge inscription.

4. Seal of the Bank of England, Intertwined W and M surmounted by crown above legend BANK OF ENGLAND 1694 1994. Edge inscription: SIC VOS NON VOBIS above. Commemorates the tercentenary of the Bank of England.

5. Dove carrying olive branch. Edge inscription: 1945 IN PEACE GOODWILL 1995. Commemorates the 50th anniversary of the end of the Second World War. An unusual coin in only having the date on its edge.

6. Array of flags, 50 and UN symbol Legend: NATIONS UNITED FOR PEACE 1945 - 1995. No edge inscription. Commemorates the 50th anniversary of the United Nations.

7. Representation of a Football, 1996 in centre, 16 small rings. Edge inscription: TENTH EUROPEAN CHAMPIONSHIP. Commemorates the "Euro 96" European Football Championships.

These coins tended not to circulate at the time of their issue, but they do seem to appear in circulation more often now that there is also a circulating coin of this denomination. In 1997 a new design was produced, intended to circulate on a daily basis. It is the first bi-metallic coin to be produced for circulation in Britain since the tin farthings with a copper plug, produced in 1692. The coins consist of an outer gold-coloured nickel-brass ring, comprised of 76% copper, 20% zinc, and 4% nickel, and an inner silver-coloured cupro-nickel inner disc comprised of 75% copper, 25% nickel. The coins weigh 12.00 grams and are 28.40 millimetres in diameter.

Because of technical difficulties, the 1997-dated coins which bear the effigy of Queen Elizabeth II by Raphael Maklouf were not released to circulation until June 1998 (the same time as the 1998-dated coins). 1998 and later dated coins bear the effigy of the Queen by Ian Rank-Broadley. The comparative rarity of the Maklouf coins ("the ones with the necklace") has led to an urban legend that they are much more valuable than the other coins, but this is absolutely not true -- there are over 13 million 1997-dated £2's in circulation. The Maklouf-effigy coins bear the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F D on the obverse; the Rank-Broadley coins bear the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRA REG FID DEF.

The normal reverse of the coin, designed by Bruce Rushin, bears a concentric design symbolically representing technological development from the Iron Age, through the Industrial Revolution and the Electronic Age to the Internet, with the inscription TWO POUNDS above the design and the date below. The coin has the edge inscription STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS.

This denomination is now commonly used for commemorative purposes, and the following varieties have been issued:

1. Reverse contains a symbolic representation of a stadium with a rugby ball and goalposts; 1999 above the design, TWO POUNDS below. Edge inscription RUGBY WORLD CUP 1999. 4.9 million coins in circulation.

2. Reverse contains a symbolic representation Marconi's transatlantic wireless transmission of 1901; TWO POUNDS below. Edge inscription WIRELESS BRIDGES THE ATLANTIC...MARCONI...1901.

3 to 6. Reverse contains XVII COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2002 around an athlete holding a banner, £2 in front and the national flag (separate coin issues showing the national flags of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland). Edge inscription SPIRIT OF FRIENDSHIP MANCHESTER 2002.

7. Reverse contains a representation of the DNA double helix, DNA DOUBLE HELIX above, 1953 TWO POUNDS 2003 below. Edge inscription DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID.

See also British coinage

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British coin Two Pounds (pre-decimal)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

For Two Pound coins after 1983, see here.

A gold Two Pounds coin was an occasional feature of the British currency from 1823 until the early 1990s. With the exception of proof coins issued in 1825, 1826, and 1831, the design of the reverse always featured the George and Dragon of Benedetto Pistrucci, with the year in the exergue under the design.

The coin was normally issued in cased "proof" condition, although the issues of 1823, 1887, 1893, and 1902 did circulate. The normal weight of the denomination was 16 grams, with a usual diameter of 28 millimetres.

The first appearance of the denomination was in the reign of George IV, when it was produced in 1826 and 1829. The obverse shows the left-facing bust of the king with the legend GEORGIUS IIII D G BRITANNIAR REX F D, with the Pistrucci reverse and DECUS ET TUTAMEN ANNO REGNI IV on the edge.

The 1826 coin features a smaller head of the king, with the legend GEORGIUS IV DEI GRATIA 1826 while the reverse shows a crowned shield within a mantle cape with the legend BRITANNIARUM REX FID DEF. The 1826 coin has the edge inscription DECUS ET TUTAMEN ANNO REGNI SEPTIMO. In 1831 a proof coin of this denomination was produced for the start of the reign of king William IV. The obverse shows a right facing head of the king with the legend GULIELMUS IIII D G BRITANNIAR REX F D, while the reverse shows a crowned shield with the legend ANNO 1831. There is no edge inscription. The next appearance of the denomination was not until 1887 when the golden jubilee of Queen Victoria was being celebrated, when the Jubilee head was used with the obverse inscription VICTORIA D G BRIT REG F D, while the reverse shows Pistrucci's design of St George slaying the dragon with the only legend being the date in the exergue. The edge of this coin is milled, and it weighs 16 grams. This coin was also (rarely) produced in the mint at Sydney, Australia, which is identified by the letter "S" above the centre of the date.

The Pistrucci reverse was used again in 1893, when the obverse used the "Old Head" of the queen, with the legend VICTORIA DEI GRA BRITT REGINA FID DEF IND IMP, and the edge is again milled. In the reigns of Kings Edward VII, George V, (Edward VIII), and George VI, two pound coins were only issued in proof sets in the first year of their reign (only prepared for approval in the case of Edward VIII, which is why his coin is valued at around £175,000!), except for Edward VII in 1902 when the did circulate. All these reigns used the Pistrucci George and Dragon obverse with milled edges. The 1902 Edward VII coin was also minted at Sydney, being identified by an "S" above the centre of the date. The reign of Queen Elizabeth II saw a departure from the normal practice in issuing gold coinage. A small number of gold £2 pieces were struck in 1953 in order to provide continuity of the series, but the striking was not released to the public, with the result that they are now valued at around £75,000. No further £2 gold pieces were struck until 1980, 9 years after decimalisation, since when they were issued somewhat haphazardly in most years. Coins from 1980 to 1984 use the Arnold Machin effigy of the Queen, while the 1985-1996 coins use the Raphael Maklouf effigy and most later coins use the Ian Rank-Broadley effigy. Until 1993, all these years use the Pistrucci reverse except for 1986 which used a gold version of the circulating Two Pound coin, and 1989 when a completely new design was used to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the first issue of the sovereign coin - the obverse shows the Queen seated on the coronation throne holding the orb and sceptre, with the legend ELIZABETH II DEI GRA REG FID DEF, while the reverse shows a crowned shield within a double rose and the legend ANNIVERSARY OF THE GOLD SOVEREIGN 1489-1989.

Since 1997 circulating £2 coins have been produced in cupronickel, and equivalent strikings in gold have been produced.

For other denominations, please see British coinage.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "British coin Two Pounds (pre-decimal)."

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British military aircraft designation systems

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

British military aircraft designation systems

Generally, aircraft in British military service were known by names assigned by their manufacturer, or (for various imported types) bestowed upon them by the first military service to bring them into service. There was a period (in the 1920s) when names followed function, beginning with 'F' for fighters, 'N' for naval, 'B' for bomber, and so on. Often the Navy would simply preface the RAF name with the word "Sea" (for example Sea Hurricane or Sea Heron).

From about 1910, it was decided that all aircraft for British Army use would be designed at the Royal Aircraft Factory, Farnborough, although they might be built elsewhere. These did have reasonably consistent designations. The Admiralty chose to have private industry design and build its aircraft. The Army eventually relented, and also bought industry-designed aircraft.

From 1920 to 1949, every type had an associated Air Ministry Specification number. Some of these never produced a prototype, let alone an aircraft in service. Others were drawn up around a private venture design, or an imported model.

Variants of each operational type are normally indicated by letters to indicate the current function of that aircraft and then a number indicating the sequence in which that variant achieved operational status. No number is reused with a different functional prefix. For example the first Lockheed Hercules in RAF service was known as the C.1. A later version with a lengthened fuselage received the designation C.3 because a single example adapted for weather monitoring purposes had already taken the designation W.2. Aircraft with a long service life may find that their function changes from time to time and a change in the designation letters and sometimes the following digit will reflect such new roles.

These functional prefixes are:

It is unlikely that all of these were ever in use at the same period in the RAF's long history. Some are unlikely to be used again in the future.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "British military aircraft designation systems."

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Cairo (disambiguation)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The most famous Cairo is the capital of Egypt. Cairo is also the name of:

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Cairo (disambiguation)."

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Campbell (disambiguation)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Campbell is the name of one of the clans of Scotland.

Campbell is also the name of several places in the United States of America:

There are also several counties in the USA named Campbell County.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Campbell (disambiguation)."

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Canby's Cross

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)


Canby's Cross

Canby's Cross is located in Lava Beds National Monument. It was erected to commemorate General Canby's death at a peace gathering. General Canby was shot in the face by Captain Jack of the Modoc tribe whom was later hanged for the killing.

The cross reads: Gen Canby USA was murdered here by the Modocs April 11, 1873

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Canby's Cross."

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Derivative (examples)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Example 1

Consider f(x) = 5:

The derivative of a constant is zero.

Example 2

Consider the graph of . Should the reader have an understanding of algebra and the Cartesian coordinate system, the reader should be able to independently determine that this line has a slope of 2 at every point. Using the above quotient (along with an understanding of the limit, secant, and tangent) one can determine the slope at (4,5):

The derivative and slope are equivalent.

Example 3

Via differentiation, one can find the slope of a curve. Consider :

For any point x, the slope of the function is .

Example 4

Consider f(x) = √x:

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Derivative (examples)."

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Digital sum

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The digital sum of a set of numbers is the sum of each set of digits independently. That is it is the same as the normal sum except that no carrying is used.

For example in decimal arithmetic, the digital sum of 123 + 789 is 802. 

123
789
---
802
More usually the digital sum is calculated in binary where the result only depends upon whether there are an even or odd number of 1s in each column. This is the same function as parity or multiple exclusive ors.

For example: 

011 (3)
100 (4)
101 (5)
---
010 (2) is the digital sum.
Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Digital sum."

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Dionysius

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

In Greek mythology, Dionysius the Elder was a mortal (different from Dionysus, the god). His courtier, Damocles, mentioned one night that, as a person of power and authority, Dionysius must be very content and happy. Dionysius invited Damocles to a banquet, which he enjoyed very much sitting at Dionysius' throne. Damocles looked up and saw a sword hanging by a single piece of horsehair directly above his head and he thereafter realized the precarious position rulers are in. The Sword of Damocles is an oft-used allusion to this myth.

Dionysius once condemned a man named Pythias to death. He allowed Pythias to leave to settle his affairs first, as long as Damon, Pythias' friend, agreed to stay as hostage. Damon did so. When Pythias returned as promised, Dionysius let them both go.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Dionysius."

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Disney

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The name Disney may refer to several aspects of the entertainment empire of Walt Disney:

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Disney."

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Don River

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

There are at least four rivers named Don:

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Don River."

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Eastern Armenian verb table

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The following is an Eastern Armenian verb table. The Western Armenian verb table can be found here:

Conjugations

Affirmative/Interrogative

Type I/II

(This conjugation is termed "I/II" to coincide with historic/Western numbering, where there are still three distinct conjugations)

  Indicative
Present 		Imperfect Preterite Future

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

yes
du
na
menk'
duk'
nrank'

sirum em
sirum es
sirum ê
sirum enk'
sirum ek'
sirum en

sirum êi
sirum êir
sirum êr
sirum êink'
sirum êik'
sirum êin

sirec'i
sirec'ir
sirec'
sirec'ink'
sirec'ik'
sirec'in

sirelu yem
sirelu yes
sirelu ê
sirelu yenk'
sirelu yek'
sirelu yen

 

  Perfect Pluperfect Fut. Perfect

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

sirel em
sirel es
sirel ê
sirel enk'
sirel ek'
sirel en

sirel êi
sirel êir
sirel êr
sirel êink'
sirel êik'
sirel êin

sirelu êi
sirelu êir
sirelu êr
sirelu êink'
sirelu êik'
sirelu êin

 

  Optative
Non-Past 		Past Conditional
Non-Past 		Past

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

sirem
sires
siri
sirenk'
sirek'
siren

sirei
sireir
sirer
sireink'
sireik'
sirein

ksirem
ksires
ksiri
ksirenk'
ksirek'
ksiren

ksirei
ksireir
ksirer
ksireink'
ksireik'
ksirein

 

  Jussive
Non-Past 		Past Imperative
 

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

piti sirem
piti sires
piti siri
piti sirenk'
piti sirek'
piti siren

piti sirei
piti sireir
piti sirer
piti sireink'
piti sireik'
piti sirein

 
sirir! ~ siri!
 
 
sirec'ek'! ~ sirek'!
 

 

Infinitive
Gerund
Present Participle I
Present Participle II
Past Act. Participle
Past Pass. Participle
Future Participle

sirel (to love)
sirogh
sirum
sirelis
sirel
sirac
sirelu

Type III

(This conjugation is termed "III" (instead of "II") to coincide with historic/Western numbering, where there are still three distinct conjugations)

  Indicative
Present 		Imperfect Preterite Future

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

yes
du
na
menk'
duk'
nrank'

kardum em
kardum es
kardum ê
kardum enk'
kardum ek'
kardum en

kardum êi
kardum êir
kardum êr
kardum êink'
kardum êik'
kardum êin

kardac'i
kardac'ir
kardac'
kardac'ink'
kardac'ik'
kardac'in

kardalu yem
kardalu yes
kardalu ê
kardalu yenk'
kardalu yek'
kardalu yen

 

  Perfect Pluperfect Fut. Perfect

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

kardac'el em
kardac'el es
kardac'el ê
kardac'el enk'
kardac'el ek'
kardac'el en

kardac'el êi
kardac'el êir
kardac'el êr
kardac'el êink'
kardac'el êik'
kardac'el êin

kardalu êi
kardalu êir
kardalu êr
kardalu êink'
kardalu êik'
kardalu êin

 

  Optative
Non-Past 		Past Conditional
Non-Past 		Past

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

kardam
kardas
karda
kardank'
kardak'
kardan

kardayi
kardayir
kardar
kardayink'
kardayik'
kardayin

kkardam
kkardas
kkarda
kkardank'
kkardak'
kkardan

kkardayi
kkardayir
kkardar
kkardayink'
kkardayik'
kkardayin

 

  Jussive
Non-Past 		Past Imperative
 

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

piti kardam
piti kardas
piti karda
piti kardank'
piti kardak'
piti kardan

piti kardayi
piti kardayir
piti kardar
piti kardayink'
piti kardayik'
piti kardayin

 
karda!
 
 
kardac'ek'!
 

 

Infinitive
Gerund
Present Participle I


Present Participle II
Past Act. Participle
Past Pass. Participle
Future Participle

kardal (to read)
kardac'ogh
kardum
kardalis
kardac'el
kardac'ac
kardalu

Negative

Type I

Note: the formation of the negative is the same for all conjugations. The examples below are based on the first conjugation.

  Indicative
Present 		Imperfect Preterite Future

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

yes
du
na
menk'
duk'
nrank'

ch'em sirum
ch'es sirum
ch'i sirum
ch'enk' sirum
ch'ek' sirum
ch'en sirum

ch'êi sirum
ch'êir sirum
ch'êr sirum
ch'êink' sirum
ch'êik' sirum
ch'êin sirum

ch'sirec'i
ch'sirec'ir


ch'sirec'
ch'sirec'ink'
ch'sirec'ik'
ch'sirec'in

ch'em sirelu
ch'es sirelu
ch'i sirelu
ch'enk' sirelu
ch'ek' sirelu
ch'en sirelu

 

  Perfect Pluperfect Fut. Perfect

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

ch'em sirel
ch'es sirel
ch'i sirel
ch'enk' sirel
ch'ek' sirel
ch'en sirel

ch'êi sirel
ch'êir sirel
ch'êr sirel
ch'êink' sirel
ch'êik' sirel
ch'êin sirel

ch'êi sirelu
ch'êir sirelu
ch'êr sirelu
ch'êink' sirelu
ch'êik' sirelu
ch'êin sirelu

 

  Optative
Non-Past 		Past Conditional
Non-Past 		Past

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

ch'sirem
ch'sires
ch'siri
ch'sirenk'
ch'sirek'
ch'siren

ch'sirei
ch'sireir
ch'sirer
ch'sireink'
ch'sireik'
ch'sirein

ch'em siri
ch'es siri
ch'i siri
ch'enk' siri
ch'ek' siri
ch'en siri

ch'êi siri
ch'êir siri
ch'êr siri
ch'êink' siri
ch'êik' siri
ch'êin siri

 

  Jussive
Non-Past 		Past Imperative
 

1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl

*piti ch'sirem
piti ch'sires
piti ch'siri
piti ch'sirenk'
piti ch'sirek'
piti ch'siren

*piti ch'sirei
piti ch'sireir
piti ch'sirer
piti ch'sireink'
piti ch'sireik'
piti ch'sirein

 
mi sirir! ~ mi siri!
 
 
mi sirec'ek'! ~ mi sirek'!
 

 

Infinitive
Gerund
Present Participle I
Present Participle II
Past Act. Participle
Past Pass. Participle
Future Participle

ch'sirel (to not love)
ch'sirogh
ch'sirum
ch'sirelis
ch'sirel
ch'sirac
ch'sirelu

Note: the negative jussive forms may also be (in Eastern Armenian) ch'piti sirem, ch'piti sires, etc; ch'piti sirei, ch'piti sireir, etc.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Eastern Armenian verb table."

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Eiffel Tower

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Eiffel Tower is the most recognizable landmark in Paris and is known worldwide as a symbol of France. Named after its designer, Gustave Eiffel, it is a premier tourist destination, with over 5.5 million visitors per year. The tower received its 200,000,000th guest on November 28, 2002.

Introduction

The structure was built from 1887-1889 as the entrance arch for the Exposition Universelle (1889), a World's fair at the centennial celebration of the French revolution. It was inaugurated on March 31, 1889, and opened on May 6. 300 steel workers joined together 18,038 pieces of steel, using two and a half million rivets. Considering the safety standards in place at the time, it is remarkable that only one worker died in the construction of the tower, during the installation of the lifts (elevators).

The tower is 300 metres tall, (986 feet), not including the television antenna on top, which adds another 20 meters, and weighs over 10,000 tonnes (over 21,000,000 pounds). When it was built it was the highest structure in the World. Maintenance on the tower includes 50 tons of dark brown paint every 7 years. Depending on the ambient temperature, the Eiffel Tower will change height by several centimetres because of contraction and expansion of the metal.

Perhaps predictably, the tower met with resistance from the public when it was first built, many thought it would be an eyesore. Today it is widely considered to be one of the most striking pieces of architectural art in the world.

One of the great Hollywood movie clichés is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the Eiffel Tower.

Originally, Eiffel had a permit to leave the tower standing for 20 years, but as it proved valuable for communication purposes, it was allowed to stay after the end of the permit.

Events

On January 12, 1908, the first long-distance radio message was sent from the tower.

Father Theodor Wulf in 1910 took observations of radiation at the top and bottom of the Eiffel Tower, discovering more than was expected at the top, and thereby detecting what are today known as cosmic rays.

In 1925, the con artist Victor Lustig twice "sold" the Eiffel Tower for scrap.

In 1929, the Tower lost the title of the World's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building was completed in New York.

When Adolf Hitler visited Paris in World War II, the lifts were put out of action by the French so that he would have to climb the 1792 steps to the summit - the part to repair them was allegedly impossible to obtain because of the war, though it was working again within hours of the departure of the Nazis. He chose to stay on the ground.

On January 3, 1956 a fire damaged the top of the tower.

In 1959 the present radio antenna was added to the top.

In the 1980s an old restaurant and its supporting iron scaffolding midway up the tower was dismantled; this was purchased and reconstructed in New Orleans, Louisiana, originally as the Tour Eiffel Restaurant, more recently known as the Red Room.

In the year 2000, flashing lights and several high power searchlights were installed on the tower. Since then the light show has become a nightly event. The searchlights on top of the tower make it a beacon in Paris' night sky.

At 19:20 on July 22, 2003, a fire occurred at the top of the tower in the broadcasting equipment room. The entire tower was evacuated; the fire was extinguished after forty minutes, and there were no reports of injuries.


View from the Tower down the Champ de Mars, with the Tour Montparnasse (Montparnasse Tower) in the distance.

View from the Tower across the River Seine, showing the Trocadero gardens and the Palais de Chaillot. A pleasure boat cruises on the river.


Reproductions and Imitations

Several reproductions of the Eiffel Tower (often smaller-scale) are found in:

Access

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Eurocopter Group

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Eurocopter Group is a global helicopter manufacturing and support company formed in 1992 from the merger the helicopter divisions of French Aerospatiale and German DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG (DASA).


Eurocopter EC120B
Larger version

In 2001, Eurocopter's worldwide and American market share were 40% and 30% respectively.

The Eurocopter Group is a wholly-owned subsidiary of EADS.

Products

Eurocopter manufactures or has manufactured these helicopters:

On Eurocopter aircraft the main rotor turns clockwise when viewed from above, unlike most American rotorcraft. This requires the pilot to make pedal movements that are the opposite to those learnt if previous flying has been on an American aircraft.

Eurocopter also pioneered the use of the 'fenestron' - an enclosed tail-rotor, which is more efficient and safer than the exposed version. For a close-up of a fenestron of the helicopter above (the Eurocopter EC120B), click here

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Helicopter

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

A helicopter is an aircraft which is lifted and propelled by one or two large horizontal rotors (propellers). Helicopters are classified as rotary-wing aircraft to distinguish them from conventional fixed-wing aircraft. The word helicopter is derived from the Greek words helix (spiral) and pteron (wing).


Robinson Helicopter Company (USA) R44, a four seat development of the R22.
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The idea of the helicopter was first conceived by Leonardo da Vinci in the 15th century, but it was not until after the invention of the powered aeroplane in the 20th century that actual models were produced. Developers such as Louis Breguet, Juan de la Cierva, Emile Berliner, and Igor Sikorsky pioneered this type of aircraft. A flight of the first fully controllable helicopter Focke-Wulf Fw 61 was demonstrated by Hanna Reitsch 1936 in Berlin, Germany.

Helicopters have many uses, both military and civil, including troop transportation, infantry support, firefighting, business transportation, casualty evacuation (including MEDEVAC, and air/sea/mountain rescue), police and civilian surveillance, carrying goods (some helicopters can carry a slung load, which allows them to carry extremely awkward loads), or as a mount for still, film or television cameras.

Compared to conventional fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters are much more complex, more expensive to buy and operate, relatively slow, have poor range and restricted payload. The compensating advantage is maneuverability: helicopters can hover in place, reverse, and above all take off and land vertically. Subject only to refueling facilities, a helicopter can travel to any location, and land anywhere with a clearing a rotor disk and a half in diameter.

Generating lift

A conventional aircraft is able to fly because its forward motion forces air to pass rapidly above and below the wings, which are shaped and angled in such a way that an area of lower air pressure is created above the wing, and this "sucks" the aircraft up: it generates lift. A helicopter uses exactly the same method, except that instead of moving the entire aircraft, only the wings themselves are moved. The helicopter's rotor can simply be regarded as rotating wings.


The eight-bladed fenestron of the EC120B Eurocopter. For a picture of the complete helicopter click here
Larger version

Turning the rotor generates lift but it also applies a reverse force to the vehicle, that would spin the helicopter in the opposite direction to the rotor. The most common way to counteract this torque is to have a smaller vertical propeller mounted at the rear of the aircraft called a tail rotor. If the rotor is shrouded (i.e., a fan embedded in the vertical tail) it is called a fenestron. Other helicopters use a "Notar" design: they blow air through a nozzle to counter the torque. Notar is an acronym meaning No TAil Rotor.

Another alternative, which saves the weight of a tail boom and rotor but adds its own complexities, is to use two large horizontal rotors which turn in opposite directions. An example is the Boeing CH-47 Chinook or the Kamov Ka-50.

Controlling flight

Useful flight requires that an aircraft be controlled in all three dimensions. In a fixed-wing aircraft, this is easy: small movable surfaces are adjusted to change the aircraft's shape so that the air rushing past pushes it in the desired direction. In a helicopter, however, there often isn't enough airspeed for this method to be practical.

For left-right horizontal direction (yaw) the antitorque system is used. Varying the pitch of the tail rotor alters the sideways thrust produced. Dual-rotor helicopters have a differential between the two rotor transmissions that can be adjusted by an electric or hydraulic motor to transmit differential torque and thus turn the helicopter. Yaw controls are usually operated with anti-torque pedals, on the floor in the same place as a fixed-wing aircraft's rudder pedals.

For pitch (tilting forward and back) or roll (tilting sideways) the angle of the main rotor is altered. 




 Enstrom (USA) 280FX Shark, an aerodynamically restyled F28 for the corporate market.
 Data: max speed 189 km/h (117 mph), three-blade main rotor of diameter 9.8 metres (32 feet), one Textron Lycoming supercharged piston engine, first flight (as the F28A) in 1962. 

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Helicopters maneuver with three flight controls besides the pedals. The collective pitch control lever controls the collective pitch, or angle-of-attack, of the helicopter blades together, that is, equally throughout the 360 degree plane-of-rotation of the main rotor system.  When the angle-of-attack is increased, the blade produces more lift. The collective control is usually a lever at the pilot's left side, near his leg. Increasing the collective and adding power with throttle causes a helicopter to rise.  

The throttle controls the absolute power produced by the engine that is connected to the rotor by a transmission.  In piston-powered helicopters it is usually a twist grip on the collective. The pilot manipulates the throttle to maintain rotor RPM and therefore regulates the effect of drag on the rotor system. Turbine engined helicopters use servo-feedback loop in their engine controls to maintain rotor RPM and relieves the pilot of routine responsibility for that task. 

The cyclic changes the pitch of the blades cyclically, causing the lift to vary across the plane of the rotor disk.  This is how the pilot causes the rotor system to tilt, and the helicopter to move. The cyclic is usually controlled by the stick in front of the pilot.

As a helicopter moves forward, the rotor blades on one side move at rotor tip speed plus the aircraft speed and is called the advancing blade. As the blade swings to the other side of the helicopter, it moves at rotor tip speed minus aircraft speed and is called the retreating blade. To compensate for the added lift on the advancing blade and the decreased lift on the retreating blade - lift being a function of an airfoils angle-of-attack and its relative airspeed - the angle-of-attack of the blades is regulated by the geometry of the rotor blade control system and mechanisms that allow the blades to flap up and down. This fact of advancing and retreating blades defines the speed limitations of the helicopter.

If the angle-of-attack of any wing, including rotor blades, is too high, the airflow above the wing separates causing instant loss of lift and increase in drag. This condition is called aerodynamic stall.  On a helicopter, this can happen in any of three ways. 1. As helicopter speed increases, the advancing blades approach the speed of sound and generate shock waves that disrupt the airflow over the blade causing loss of lift. 2. As helicopter speeds increase, the retreating blade experiences lower relative airspeeds and the controls compensate with higher angle-of-attack. With a low enough relative airspeed and a high enough angle-of-attack, aerodynamic stall is inevitable. This is called retreating blade stall. 3. Any low rotor RPM flight condition accompanied by increasing collective pitch application wil